I. Introduction:

To establish a position relative to another position on the face of the Earth, one must know how that point is in reference to where you are at, the current position (CP). The CP is a very important point as you will ALWAYS need this when navigating. We shall define four basic cardinal directions and in between them, there shall be many more subdirections or combination directions.¹

II. Basic Techniques:

The techniques below will give you general north, south, east, and west directions

1. Experience & Local Observance:

The most basic technique is to use the past experience in the terrain where you are at and pick up the native customs in that area to find your direction. When you are familiar with the area around you, you won't need additional tools to navigate. Your best tool is the brain inside your head. You only need to know your current position (CP). Examples are listed here:

• Most beaches in Viet-Nam face due East.
• Most beaches in CA face due West.
• Beaches in NY face due East.
• Houses in the rural sections of Viet-Nam for the most part face due South-East. ¹
• Freeway-22 runs along a East & West direction.
• Freeway-55 (fwy-55) runs along a North & South direction.

2. In Wooded Forest Areas.

To determine the northern direction in a wooded forest area, look for these signs:

• Sides of rock or trees that have the algae or fungus growing.
• Sides of the tree that have dark barks.
• Sides of the tree that have small tree rings.

3. In The Desert:

When in the desert, look for the cactus that are leaning. It will lean toward the south or south-west direction, depending on the zone you're in.

4. Along A Running Water Source:

When lost, and you cannot use any of the methods above, follow the water downstream.

Field Expedient Techniques

Day Time Field Expedient Techniques

I. Shadow-tip method:

This simple and accurate method of finding directions by the sun consists of four basic steps.

Step 1. Place a stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where a distinctive shadow will be cast. Mark the shadow tip with a stone, twig, or other means. This first shadow mark is always the west direction.

Step2. Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few inches. Mark the new position of the shadow tip in the same way as the first.

Step3. Draw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east-west line.

Step4. Standing with the first mark (west) to your left, the other directions are simple; north is to the front, east is to the right, and south is behind you.

II. Watch Method.

A. An analog watch can be used to determine the approximate true north and true south. The direction will be accurate if you are using true local time, without any changes for daylight savings time. Remember, the further you are away from the equator, the more accurate this method will be. In the northern hemisphere, hold the watch horizontal and point the hour hand at the sun. Bisect the angle between the hour hand and 12-o'clock mark to get the south line (see top picture in figure below).

Night Time Field Expedient Techniques

I. Using The Moon

Because the moon has no light of its own, we can only see it when it reflects the sun's light. As it orbits the earth on its 28-day circuit, the shape of the reflected light varies according to its position. We say there is a new moon or no moon when it is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun. Then, as it moves away from the earth's shadow, it begins to reflect light from its right side and waxes to become a full moon before waning, or losing shape, to appear as a sliver on the left side. You can use this information to identify direction.

If the moon rises before the sun has set, the illuminated side will be the west. If the moon rises after midnight, the illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery provides us with a rough east-west reference during the night.

II. Using The Stars

The Northern Sky

The main constellation to learn are the Ursa Major, AKA the Big Dipper, and Cassiopeia , AKA the Lazy W. Use them to locate Polaris, AKA the North Star. Polaris is considered to remain stationary, as it rotates only 1.08 degrees around the northern celestial pole. The North Star is the last star of the Little Dipple's handle and can be confused with the Big Dipper. However, the Little Dipper is made up of seven rather dim stars and is not easily seen unless you are far away from any town or city lights. The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia are generally opposite each other and rotate counterclockwise around Polaris, with Polaris in the center. The Big Dipper is a seven-star constellation in the shape of a dipper. The two stars forming the outer loop of this dipper are "pointer stars" because they point to the North Star. Mentally draw a line between the outer bottom star to the outer top star of the Big Dipper's bucket. Extend this line about five times the distance between the pointer stars. You will find the North Star along this line. You may note that the North Star can always be found at the same approximate vertical angle form the above horizon as te northern line of latitude you are located on. For example, if you are at 35 degrees north latitude off the horizon, Polaris will be easier to find if you scan the sky at 35 degrees off the horizon. This will help to lessen the area of the sky in which to locate the Big Dipper, Cassiopeia, and the North Star.

Navigating with a compass

One of the items in the 10 essentials is the compass. In the United States, most trails will be clearly marked. However, when you want to leave the trail and go "cross-country" or find a heading of an object on a map, nothing is better than a compass³. A compass is a free floating magnetic device that point to the magnetic north pole on the Earth. We use this to help us navigate as it points us to a fixed point of reference.

I. Basic parts

Some compasses have more advance features built-in to it. But each compass should have the following 2 basic components.

Component #1:The rotating frame contains the following:

On the circumference of the compass frame, there is subdivision that is usually divided into 360⁰ or 400 grad, with markings around the frame. Within this frame component there are these parts:

• 1a: Magnetic needle:

This needle is a free floating arrow lying horizontally within the frame. This needle has a red or luminous markings on one side of it and always points toward "magnetic north." Depending on your location, the difference between "true north" and "magnetic north" is called the "declination." This needle is used in combination with the orienting arrow to orient directions.

• 1b: Orienting Arrow:

This arrow sits on the frame and does not throw off the magnetic arrow. It moves with the frame as it is turned. This arrow is used to orient the compass.

• 1c: Heading lines:

Component #2: The fixed baseplate contains the following:^3,4

The baseplate is where everything sits on. It does NOT move. It has the following parts:

• 2a: Direction of travel arrow (DTA):

This arrow is etched on the head of the baseplate. It shows you which direction to travel when the compass is correctly oriented.

• 2b: Inch & metric scale:

This is used to measure the distance between points on the map.

• 2c: Index pointer

This pointer is used to read the bearing when the compass is dialed in and is correctly oriented.

II. How to use the compass:

A. Finding true north:

In order to find "true north," we must know the error in the true north and the magnetic north in your area. This error is called the "magnetic declination" and is usually marked on the map. Below is a magnetic declination map of the US.

First, find the declination for your area. Then lay the compass flat and horizontal to the surface of the earth. Rotate the frame so that the declination is pointing to the index pointer using the following formula (360⁰-x⁰E), (0⁰+x⁰W). Then turn the whole compass so that the red magnetic needle is aligned with the orienting arrow. The direction of the Arrow of Travel (DTA) is the "True North."

Examples:

(a) In the Orange County, California, USA, the average declination is 15⁰ to the E⁶. Turn the frame so that 345⁰ (360⁰-15⁰E) is on the index pointer. Next rotate the whole compass so that the red magnetic arrow lines up with the orienting arrow. True North will be the direction of the DTA..

(b) In Washington D.C., USA the declination is 10⁰ to the West.³ Turn the frame so that 10⁰ (0⁰+10⁰W) is on the index pointer.. Next rotate the whole compass so that the red magnetic arrow lines up with the orienting arrow. True North will be the direction of the DTA..

Note: When using a compass, stay away from metal objects and power lines as it can affect the performance of the compass needle. Follow this distance chart.

B. Bearing:

Definition:^3,5 The line of heading and the north heading combines to form an angle called the angle of travel or bearing angle. The bearing angle is always measured from north (0⁰) and goes clockwise to the direction of the heading.

Example:

Heading is East, bearing is 90⁰;
Heading is West, bearing is 270⁰ (no such thing as a bearing of -90⁰ or`90⁰W).

C. Three scenarios to follow a compass heading:

1. Bearing is given:^3,5

We have a bearing of 124⁰.

• Lay the compass horizontal and dial the frame to 124⁰ on the index pointer.
• Rotate the whole compass so that the magnetic needle is aligned with the orienting arrow.
• The direction of the DTA will have a bearing of 124⁰.

2. Determine a bearing of an object:^3,5

• Lay the compass horizontal at eye level.
• Point the DTA toward the object you want to find the bearing for.
• Rotate the frame so that the red magnetic needle lines up with the orienting arrow. (See picture (a) & (b).
• Bring down the compass and read the bearing on the index pointer.

3. Find a bearing of an object on a map: (See Navigating with a Map)

IV: Various Compass

Navigating with a Map:

Maps are drawings of the terrain on the ground. There are many types of maps. The most common map we use when doing recreational activities such as hiking, biking, or just traversing an orienteering course is a map with topographic symbols. Topographic maps provide contour lines that show the shape of the terrain on the map.

I. Finding and buying a TOPOGRAPHIC map:^3,7

A. Finding maps:

All maps typically are named after a city, a famous landmark, or a peak in the area of coverage. In the US, topographic maps have an index book that contain all topo map published by states. These books are published by the U.S. Geological Survey. Map stores that sell maps usually have these index books. You use these books to locate the map coverage you need. Nowadays, there's probably an online version that you can use to search for your map.

B. Buying maps:

Most topo maps in the US are published by the USGS at Denver, Colorado. After you find the name of the map you want:

(1) The simplest way to get is visit your local sporting goods store or map supply stores like R.E.I., The North Face, Allied Services, Sports Chalet, etc.

(2) The second way is to contact the U.S.G.S. directly at: Maps Sales, Box 25046, Federal Center, Bldg. 810, Denver, Colorado 80225.

II. How to read a map:

In the various camp outings at unfamiliar areas, the big game hunt will apply your skill at using a map and compass. When reading a map, we need to know the following:^3,5

A. Directions on a map:

Most maps have north facing to the top. Along with the general direction there are sometimes grid lines drawn on them. These lines are usually latitude & longitude lines.

Latitude lines run along the East-West direction, and is labeled as North and South heading. 0⁰ starts at the equator and goes up to 90⁰ north at the North Pole; down to the 90⁰ south at the South Pole.

Longitude lines run North-South, and is labeled West and East heading. 0⁰ originates at the Greenwich Meridian in England and ends at the International Date Line with 180⁰ (exactly half way around the world).⁸ Since it is exactly half way around, it can be labeled as West or East.

The intersection of these lines gives you a position on the map.

Newer maps now have UTM grids which are meter base and allow you to pinpoint your position on a map using a set of numbers. [more to follow information to follow in the Appendix section]

B. Date:

Each published map has a date on it.^3,6 If you use a map that is too old, the details on it may not be correct and cause some confusion while navigating.

C. Map-scale:⁷

1:24,000 (1 inch = 2000 ft)
1:25,000 (1 inch ~ 2083 ft)
1:62,500 (1 inch ~ 1 mile)
1:100,000 (1 inch ~ 1.6 miles)
1:250,000 (1 inch ~ 4 miles)

All maps usually have various scales depending on the detail you need. Maps with smaller scales have more detailed information, but cover a smaller area as it is zoomed in closer. Think of it similar to using a magnifying glass. You can see more information but see less of the big picture.

7.5' maps: have scale 1:24,000 (1"=2000ft.), map size 22"x27", and covers an area of 49 to 71 sq. miles. 1⁰x2⁰ maps: scale 1:250,000 (1"~4mi.), map size 22"x32", and cover 4580 to 8669 sq. miles.⁷

D. Land-shape: ^5,7

The elevation (height) of a point on the face of the earth is based on sea-level (0). Contour lines are divided on an even interval [depending on what the scale is]. After each 4 light intermediate contour lines, there is an index contour line marked with a dark line and labeled with its elevation. This enables us to see the elevation easier.

E. Legend symbols:

 

 

Ground Map

F. Finding current position (CP) on a map:

If you want to locate the current position you are standing on a map, we need to base it on at least two other known landmark on the map The more landmark you know, the better the accuracy. This method is known as triangulation.

Example of easy identifiable land features are a hilltop nearby or a lake.

Use the compass to find the bearing of the known points on the map. Transfer the bearing on to the map and draw the lines of the bearing from the known landmark. Your CP will be where the intersection occur on the map..

G. Navigating to a point on the map:

(i Locate your current position (CP): mark this point on the map.

(ii) Find the bearing of the landmark you want to traverse to on the map: Orient the map to face the correct North on the ground. Place the side baseplate of the compass on the map starting from your CP pointing to the landmark.

Lay the compass on the map, so the edge touches the CP and point it toward the landmark. Turn the frame so that the orienting arrow align with the north of the map [use the orienting lines to get more accurate]. The bearing of the objective on the map will follow the DTA. Remember not to move the bezel.

(iii) Go to a landmark: Rotate the compass so that the red arrows [floating needle and orienting arrow] are aligned. Follow the DTA to get to the objective.

H. Finding an object on the map:

(1) Locate your CP: Look on the map and locate your position.

(2) Find the bearing of a distant landmark [see c-2].

After finding the bearing, leave the frame of the compass alone.

(3) Find the location on the map:

• Lay the compass on the map, so that edge of the baseplate touches the location of you CP and the orienting arrow is pointing toward the north of the map. (use the orienting lines for a more precise line up).
• Draw a straight line, from the CP along the edge of the compass.
• Look on this line and you should see the landmark in question.

GPS Techniques

GPS: A Tool to aid the navigator.

Definition

GPS is a satellite-based, radio navigational system. It consists of a constellation with 28 active satellites, 24 main satellites and 4 backups. Each satellite transmits data that enables the GPS receiver to provide precise position and time to the user. The GPS receivers come in several configurations: hand-held, vehicular-mounted, aircraft-mounted, and watercraft-mounted. GPS help us establish our positions on the ground, in the air, and at sea. Many receivers can receive 12 satellites at one time. GPS receivers gives us an X, Y (longitude & latitude), and Z (elevation [above sea-level]) coordinates so that we can easily mark our location on a map. Good navigation skills are still required to interpret the data that the GPS provides

Basics

GPS system has 3 of the following segments:

Space:

GPS receivers base the positions on the radio signal received from the satellites in space. The GPS receiver calculate the time difference between the signal received and the signal sent to the satellites.

Control stations:

The GPS system is controlled, checked and updated almost continuously by control stations managed by the United States Department of Defense (DoD). There are 5 monitoring control stations spread out all over the world, but there is only ONE MASTER control station, located at Schriever (formerly Falcon) Air Force Base near Colorado Spring, CO. Can you imagine how secure this place must be? There are extensive security check points, including twin razor wired-top fences and high tech detection devices.

Users:

We use GPS receivers to find positions on the ground. The GPS receiver must receive at least 3 satellites to be able to get an X & Y position and at least 4 satellites to locate an X, Y & Z position on the ground.

Capabilities

The GPS provides worldwide, 24-hour, all-weather, day or night coverage when the satellite constellation is complete. The GPS can locate the position of the user accurately to within 21 meters — 95% of the time. However, the GPS has been known to accurately locate the position of the user within 8-10 meters. It can determine the distance and direction from the user to a preprogrammed location or the distance between two programmed location called way points. It also provides exact date and time for the time zones in which the user is located.

Base Map:

Limitations

A constellation of 24 satellites broadcasts precise signals for use by navigational sets. The satellites are arranged in six rings that orbit the earth twice each day. The GPS navigational signals are similar to light rays, so anything that blocks the light will reduce or block the effectiveness of the signals. The more unobstructed the view of the sky, the better the system performs.

Compatability:

How GPS can aid the navigator

Appendix A: Slopes and Terrain Features

I. Slopes

A. Gentle slope

Contour lines on the map will be far apart and relatively equally divided.

B. Steep slopes

Contour lines on the map will be close together and relatively equally divided.

C. Concave slopes

Contour lines on the map at top of the slope will be close together and far apart at the bottom of the slope. Person standing at the top of the slope will be able to see the people at the bottom very easily. When climbing this slope, it will be easier at the bottom and will get harder as you approach the top

D. Convex slopes

Contour lines on the map at the top of the slopes are far apart and closer together at the bottom of the slope. Person standing at the top of the slope will not be able to see the people at the bottom very easily. If you climb this slope, it will start out hard and will be easier as you get near the top.

II. Basic Terrain Features

A. Hill: A hill is is an area of high grounds. From a hilltop, the ground slopes down in all directions (360⁰.) Lines of contours on a map is shown by concentric circles with the highest (hilltop) at the center.

Appendix B: Orienteering

What is orienteering? Orienteering is a competitive form of land navigation. It is for all ages and degrees of fitness and skill. It provides the suspense and excitement of a treasure hunt. The object of orienteering is to locate control points by using a map and compass to navigate through the woods. The courses may be as long as 10 km.

Description:

Each orienteer is given a detailed topographic map with the various control points circled. Each point has a flag marker and a distinctive punch that is used to mark the scorecard. Competitive orienteering involves running from checkpoint to checkpoint. It is more demanding than road running, not only because of the terrain, but because the orienteer must constantly concentrate, make decisions, and keep track of the distance covered. Orienteering challenges both the mind and the body; however, the competitor's ability to think under pressure and make wise decisions is more important than speed or endurance.

The Course

The orienteering area should be on a terrain that is heavily wooded, preferably uninhabited, and difficult enough to suit different levels of competition. The area must be accessible to competitors and its use must be coordinated with appropriate terrain and range control offices.

a. The ideal map for an orienteering course is a multi-colored, accurate, large-scale topographic map. A topographic map is a graphic representation of a selected man-made and natural features of a part of the earth's surface plotted to a definite scale. The distinguishing characteristics of a topographic map is the portrayal of the shape and elevation of the terrain by contour lines.

b. For orienteering within the United States, large-scale topographic (topo) maps are available from the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) Hydrographic Topographic Center or United States Geological Surveys (USGS). The scale suitable for orienteering is 1:50,000.

Types of Orienteering Courses.

Route Orienteering

This form can be used during the training phase and in advanced orienteering. In this type of event, a master or advance competitor leads the group as they walk a route. The beginners trace the actual route walked on the ground on their maps. They circle the location of the different control points found along the walked route. When they finish, the maps are analyzed and compared. During training, time is not a factor. Another variation is when a course is laid out on the ground with markers for the competitor to follow. There is no master map, as the course is traced for`the competitor by flags or markers. The winner of the event is the competitor who has successfully traced the route and accurately plotted the most control points on his map.

Line Orienteering

At least five control points are used during this form of orienteering training. The competitor traces on his map a preselected route from a master map. The object is to walk the route shown on the map, circling the control points on the map as they are located on the ground (Figure F-1).

After selecting the control points for the course, determine the start and finish locations. The last control should be near the finish. In describing each control's location, a coordinate and a combination of two letters identifying the point (control code) should be included in each descriptive clue list that is normally given to each competitor at least two minutes before his start time.

There are usually 6 to 12 control markers on the course in varying degrees of difficulty and distances apart so that there are no easy, direct routes. Instead, each competitor is faced with many choices of direct but difficult routes, or of indirect but easier routes. Each control's location is circled, and the order in which each is to be visited is clearly marked on the master map. The course may be a closed transverse with start and finish collocated, or the start and finish may be at different locations. The length of the course and difficulty of control placement varies with the competitors' degree of expertise. Regardless of the class event, all competitors must indicate on their event cards proof of visiting the control markers. Inked stamps, coded letters, or punches are usually used to do this procedure.

Score Orienteering

In this event, the area chosen for the competition is blanketed with many control points (Figure F-3). The controls near the start/finish point (usually identical in this event) have a low point value, while those more distant or more difficult to locate have a high point value. (See Figure F-6 for sample card.) This event requires the competitor to locate as many control markers as he can within the specified time (usually minutes.) Points are awarded for each control visited and deducted for exceeding the specified time. The competitor with the highest point score is the winner.

Terrain Feature Quiz

This image has the various Terrain Features you have learned in this article. See if you can fill in the 10 terrain features listed here.

For the answers to this quiz, please email the This e-mail address is being protected from spam bots, you need JavaScript enabled to view it Put in the subject heading: "Land Navigation Quiz". You will get a link to view the answers.